Clinical Psychology Interest Club

Second General Meeting

2011-03-09T22:38:00.002+08:00

Today is CPIC's second general meeting in year 2011. We have invited Ms Liu from CPCS to give us a talk about her experience as a clinical psychologist. Due to the smaller number of CPIC members who attended, the talk became a warm, sharing session. We all sat on the floor and chit-chatted with Ms Liu, gaining invaluable insights. A lot of questions have been posed, and Ms Liu answered them with great enthusiasm. Thank you Ms Liu, for your time and effort! And also to the members, thank you for coming for our second event this year! :-D We may be a small bunch but we'll grow!

Photos will be posted up soon, so, stay tuned! :-D

Member's Feedback

9^th March 2011 Second General Meeting

Make this room not this cold? Haha… just kidding. Anyway, enjoyed today’s session. Very informative. And I would prefer an interactive session where there is more discussion like today’s meeting.

The committee members were feeling really cold too! And we’re not kidding at all! Haha! Sorry for that, we will remember to get the remote control from the administration next time. And yes, CPIC believes that discussions like today’s are interesting and educational, and inspiring too! Hence, we will try our very best to invite speakers more frequently. Hopefully they’d spare some time slots for us! J

It’s quite an informative talk. Thank you for arranging the event. –Victor—

You’re welcome! We appreciate you for attending the talk too! Hope you gained something from today’s meeting! J

This week’s talk was certainly educational. Liked the informal approach and the warm environment that this club gives. Don’t really know what to expect next week… Maybe split personalities e.g. 24 Jacks?

Thank you for your kind feedback! Warm environment? I think most members would agree that it was freezing today, haha! Just joking, I get what you mean. Without your participation I doubt we’d be able to generate a warm environment too! We will not have a meeting next week; when we have one, we will inform you through email, or you could check out the updates on our Facebook account. We will consider your suggestion, thank you! J (By the way, what is 24 Jacks?)

It is interesting to have talks like today. Good to be able to know the members better too! =)

Thank you! Talks, especially interesting ones, are always, well, interesting! Haha! Glad to know you better too! J

The whole talk was interesting. I’m very happy to be able to listen an experience speaker.

And we’re very delighted that you’re very happy! We will take note of this and try our best to create more memorable experiences for our members. J

1. Air cond a bit too cold.
2. It’s very inspiring talk, keep on going?
Sorry for the freezing temperature! Thank you for your support, we will! J

Back and kicking! Second GM awaits you! :-D

2011-03-07T22:58:00.002+08:00

Who said we're dead and gone?

CPIC is BACK with more goodies for members and non-members alike!

Join our sharing session with Clinical Psychologist Ms Liu Moy Yub this Wednesday, 9th March 2011, from 12:00pm to 2:00pm. Head over to L.H. 9.3 at Wisma HELP and DRAG YOUR FRIENDS ALONG! :-D

P/s: We've got games too!

First General Meeting 2011 -- Dissociative Amnesia

2011-01-27T19:00:00.016+08:00

Yesterday was our first General Meeting and it was a BLAST! Aside from discussing about Dissociative Amnesia (the disorder with the most votes during Clubs and Societies Day), we had a few games; but on top of that, everybody enjoyed themselves to the max! Everybody became friends at the end of the session, which was the best part! :-)

Ice-breaking game: Animal Kingdom. Everybody was still rather reserved at that moment.

Soon, we got into the game as the group atmosphere improved!

p/s: Love Apri's expression!

This was my group -- which is the second group. :-D

We played the ice-breaking game in a comfortable position -- sitting down! X)

Christine doing the 'monkey'! X)

Xiang Yi and Apri were in the same group, and they were really INTO it! :-D

11 members in one group, and the game was really effective in helping us to remember our club members.

I remember saying something like: blablabla Clinical Psychology Interest Club blablabla~~~

That was Vicky having the members draw lots. I wonder if anybody thought that we were to distribute prizes for the chosen ones? X)

Presenting the case study on Dissociative Amnesia.

And I couldn't find a photo/picture that described 'fear' better than Mr Chihuahua.

This, was the purpose of the 'lucky draw'...

...Christine was eager to share with us her acting skills by collaborating with the lucky member for a game of charades!

Apri was providing further explanations for each symptom revealed by the game of charades.

A brief overview of different treatments for the disorder was explained by Xiang Yi...

... while looking very 'pro', again!

And after that, we had a game of 'kick my butt'!

Well, actually no, I was just kidding. See our happy faces? Everybody seemed so happy!

Because everybody is wishing everybody well on a piece of paper attached to the back!

Some wrote essays!

But nobody minded because this game got us closer!

Old people wishing each other! X)

I wonder what was written on Apri's piece of paper?

If I were Xiang Yi, I would write: 'Happy Chinese New Year and please help me drag your other friends into the CPIC!'

I can guarantee you that they were not fighting, but learning more about each other. :-D

Leaving a message to be cherished.

The response for this game was so good that even after the game has ended, everybody couldn't stop writing on each others' backs! X)

Members' Feedback will be an important session for every session! :-D

CPIC souvenir and the paper full of wishes from friends! :-)

The hard copy is already put up on our noticeboard on Level 8, Wisma HELP. The soft copy was already posted on our blog yesterday! Remember to check it out!

Committee 2011!!! X) Looks as if us three are proposing to Xiang Yi! Hahaha! XD

Happy CPIC members at the end of our first GM! And I'm the epitome of craziness!

Amy (former coordinator 2011), Christine (vice coordinator 2011), Vicky, Xiang Yi (coordinator 2011), me (secretary 2011), Siaw Lin (former secretary), and Apri (treasurer) -- We're the 'old people' of CPIC!!!

Everybody had a wonderful time, and the committee wants to extend their thanks and gratefulness to all our members. Without you guys, there will be no CPIC. So if you don't want any of your friends to miss out, do tell them about us, and bring them to our subsequent meetings. Why miss out on this fun and educational club? There's no reason to! ;-)

Before we sign off, the CPIC would like to wish everybody Happy Chinese New Year and happy holidays (for those who do not celebrate CNY). Hopefully everybody will collect a lot of angpau money! For me, angpow money improves my mental health. X)

Happy Chinese New Year! May you be healthy and happy always!

CPIC loves you!

p/s: More photos on our Facebook account! If you haven't joined us there, please do so! :-)

Members' Feedback -- 26th January 2011

2011-01-26T22:27:00.009+08:00

Our first general meeting was considered a success! Although only a fraction of the newly registered members attended the meeting, but everybody had fun. :-) Updates will be posted soon, so stay tuned!

Remember that some us wrote something onto a piece of orange paper just now? We appreciate all the comments because they have given us a chance to look at ourselves.

The purpose of us having this at the end of every meeting is that we hope to see what we can do to deliver satisfaction to our members. We love hearing from our members, be it positive or negative comments; and we will love it even more if our members give us suggestions regarding the club as a whole, and future events or activities! We are practising a transparency policy with this activity, so we will not censor anything, unless vulgarities are included or when sensitive issues are raised. Don't be shy, but if you really are shy, you can also give us feedback through email! :-)

The original copy will be posted on our notice board on Level 8, Wisma HELP. This is the soft copy, and the orange italics are the replies to your comments! :-D

Members' Feedback

26^th January 2011 First General Meeting

Committee members are active & cheerful J
We couldn’t make it possible without your participation too!

It was fun! Liked the game, it was creative! J
We are glad that we managed to deliver what we promised, and we’re glad that you liked it!

I find the case study is interesting. Will look forward to next activity. Thanks committee! J
Then we’ll have more case studies next time! Don’t worry, we’ll notify you through email about our activities. However, if you don’t receive our email, you can always check our Facebook page and blog for updates. You can notify us if you suspect that you are accidentally left out from our mailing list. J

I like case studies ^o^ and I would interested in MDD ^^ Maybe can ask everyone of us to act together.
Happy that you liked it! Thank you for your suggestion; we find it helpful in designing our activities. We will consider having Major Depressive Disorder as one of our themes some day!

Have a fun nice day here…. Thx…Creative game and kindly friend.
We had a lot of fun too, and it would not be possible without all of you! J

Have a wonderful day here. Looking for more interest abt psychology! –heok lyn-
You can count on us! Thank you for being with us. J

All of you have a creative way of making games interesting. Also very informative. TQ! -Annabelle-
Thank you for your kind comments! Maybe all of us could think of interesting games to play in the future. Don’t hesitate to give suggestions through email and Facebook. You can do so too during our Feedback session at the end of every meeting! J

Is my first year and it’s fun to be here today, thx a lots for everything today. J
Welcome to the BPsych programme! We hope to help you relieve your stress while being ‘educational’ at the same time. All the best in your studies! :-D

To: CPIC
I’m looking forward to all the events and activities that will b held.
From: Sammi
We’re looking forward to your ardent participation too! :-D Thank you!

It was fun! The activities were interesting.
Thank you! We love you! J

I’m very happy for my 1^st time in CPIC. Committee are very sporting and friendly. Activities are interesting!
We’re very happy because the CPIC contribute to your happiness! :-D Thanks for your compliments! All of you were very sporting and approachable too! Honestly! J

Very happy to have been here. Perhaps next time it would be better to plan and organise the slides and pass more information. Luv u guys anywhere J.
You being happy with us is such a BIG compliment! :-D We will take note of your suggestion, thank you for providing us a chance to improve ourselves and better satisfy our members! We love you guys too! J

Thank you for the interactive activities, have had a fun time.
You’re welcome! And don’t forget that the activities would not be interactive if we don’t have you all with us! So, thank YOU! J

First General Meeting 2011

2011-01-24T14:32:00.005+08:00

Fresh start for a new year! See you folks there! :-D

In case the words aren't clear,

Date: 26th January 2011
Time: 12:00 to 14:00
Venue: LT8.5, Wisma HELP

Love,

Clinical Psychology Interest Club

Clubs and Societies Day, January 2011

2011-01-20T17:58:00.008+08:00

Two days ago was HELP’s Clubs and Societies Day. Six CPIC members arrived at 11:30am to set up the CPIC booth. Not something to be proud of, but we just managed to finish setting our booth up when HELP students started pouring in. Apparently, being FULLY prepared is something that we still have to work at.

Our team of six spent a lot of effort in introducing our club to the mass. I would say that this time round, the team has done a great, great job because the number of new members broke previous records – it doubled! So give yourselves a pat on the back for all the enthusiasm and hard work! We will be able to keep this up and better improve the CPIC!

Words are cumbersome, so I shall let the photos do the talking:

Xiang Yi introducing the CPIC potential 'customers'...

...while looking very professional!

Christine marketing the club as well, so very enthusiastic!

Apri working her magic!

And that's me explaining the activities we have in store for our members!

Crowd getting bigger, we're getting busier :-D

Christine and I answering questions together.

Apri having a Pantene moment!

Our gimmick for the day -- Which story are you most interested in?

Registered members were given a chance to vote on the story of their choice.

Nobody hesitated to exercise their voting rights!

And I think I know why they were laughing...

After two hours of marketing the club, we were exhausted but happy! What ensued was a photo-shoot of our VERY HAPPY and CONTENTED team of six!

CPIC team of six!

Once again, I would love to thank the group for your effort, and also to thank and welcome the new members into the CPIC! And to all CPIC existing members, thank you for staying with us! The club shall be better than before with shared effort. :-)

Clinical Psychology Interest Club

(Rocks!)

Diagnostic Tools

2010-11-04T18:18:00.001+08:00

Diagnostic Testing (A Talk by Masters of Clinical Psychology students)

Want to know how diagnostic testing are invented and how they are used? Come and find out more at Clinical Psychology Interest Club meeting!

Date: 10 November 2010

Place: Wisma HELP L.H 9.5

Please confirm your attendance on our Facebook Event. http://www.facebook.com/event.php?eid=129738650414097&num_event_invites=35

PsychoEducation Workshop

2010-10-22T11:28:00.003+08:00

PsychoEducation Workshop.

We would like to invite all members and non-members of CPIC to join us for this coming PsychoEducation Workshop. This workshop will be conducted by HELP students who are currently pursuing their Masters in Clinical Psychology. In this workshop, you will learn about different approaches to psychotherapy, mainly on Albert Ellis and Carl Rogers in the real working world. The program of the day is as below:

Date: 27th October 2010 (Wednesday)

Time: 12.30 p.m. - 2.00 p.m.

Venue: Yet to be confirmed.

Workshop 1: October 27, 2010 (12.30-2pm)

Introduction

Introduction to the objectives of the workshop and assess expectations of the workshop and the field of clinical psychology

Part 1- Introduction on therapy

An interactive discussion regarding their understanding of therapy

Part 2- Video (Albert Ellis & Carl Rogers)

Showcase of different approaches to therapy
Part 3- Share experience and Q & A

Dscussion on the differences between approaches and identify approaches that students prefer

Sharing on Master's students' personal experience regarding the Clinical Psychology program

Becoming a Clinical Psychologist.

2010-09-26T12:39:00.003+08:00

Do you want to be a clinical Psychologist?
If yes, what should you do after getting a degree in Psychology.
Have you ever wondered what it is like to be a Clinical Psychologist? Do all clinical psychologist have to deal with mental-ill patients?
What are the job prospects in Malaysia?
Where can I work as a Clinical Psychologist?

The Clinical Psychology Interest Club committee understands that many students who are at the crossroads have the same probing questions as you. So, we've arranged a talk tailored to answer your questions.

We are truly honored to have our in-house lecturer, Dr. Ng Wai Sheng to give us a talk on "Becoming a Clinical Psychologist!" After Dr. Ng has shared her working experience, a group of Master's student will conduct a Q&A session with you where you can ask anything pertaining to the topic. That's one good news. The other good news is that we will be giving free refreshment towards the end of our program. Feel free to mingle around with us.

Here is the details:
Wednesday, September 29 · 12:30pm - 2:00pm
Location Wisma HELP (exact venue to be confirm)

For more information, please proceed to our Facebook link http://www.facebook.com/event.php?eid=110308122361806&ref=ts and confirm your attendance. We look forward to seeing you.

Phobia.

2010-07-02T23:26:00.005+08:00

Hi everyone.

At this point of time, you'd be done with assignment deadlines and preparing for Finals of this short semester. I know, it has been tough for some of us, having to juggle between different deadlines and presentations all at once. Last meeting, we had an interesting discussion on the topic "Phobia". Kah Yan, the coordinator took us through the topic of fear at the start of the meeting. We thought this would of interest for you because all of us have fears and so, we can relate to this topic. For example, we have fear of exams. We have sweaty palms before entering the exam hall. We worried about the end result, whether we would pass with flying colors or fail to meet our expectations. On the other hand, we have unreasonable fear that gives rise to the phobias we experience. So, what is phobia? We heard of it many times...but really, do we have the right understanding for it?

What is phobia?

A phobia is an irrational and persistent fear of certain objects, activities or people. People with phobias will typically go to great lengths to avoid the feared object, situation or person. A diagnosis of an anxiety disorder may be made if the daily functioning of the individual is compromised by his or her excessive fear.

There are three types of phobia:

1. Specific phobia which is the most common type of phobia.

Specific phobia is marked and persistent fear that is excessive or reasonable. It can be caused b the presence or anticipation of a specific object or situation (e.g. flying, heights, animals, seeing blood, receiving injection.) This stimulus usually triggers an immediate anxiety response which may give rise to predisposed panic attack. So, the person stays away from situation and stimulus to avoid intense anxiety and distress.

Specify type:

-animal type

-natural environment type (e.g heights, storms,water)

-blood-injection-injury type

-situational type (e.g. airplanes, elevators, enclosed places)

- other type (e.g., phobic avoidance of situation that may lead to choking, vomiting or contracting an illness, in children, avoidance of loud sounds or costumed characters)

2. Social phobia

This is marked with persistent fear of one or more social or performance situations where the person is exposed to unfamiliar people or to possible scrutiny of others. The individual fears that he or she will act in a way that will be humiliating or embarrassing. The person usually avoid performance situation to avoid enduring with intense anxiety or distress.

3. Agoraphobia

Agoraphobia means fear of being in places where it may be difficult or embarrassing to get out quickly especially when you think you will experience another occurrence of panic attack. Because of this fear, the person avoids the places where one think he or she may have a panic attack or panic-like symptoms. Commonly feared places and situations can be elevators, lines, bridges, driving, shopping mall and airplanes. Because the fear is too overwhelming, the person will choose to stay at home and avoid public places. It is painfully challenging and it robs you from an enjoyable life.

Top 10 Common Specific Phobia

•Acrophobia (height)

•Nytophobia (dark)

•Claustrophobia (confined space)

•Ophidiophobia (snake)

•Arachnophobia (spider)

•Trypanophobia (medical needle)

•Astraphobia (Lighthing)

•Nosophobia (disease)

•Mysophobia aka Germophobia (dirt or contamination)

•Triskaidekaphobia (fear of number 13)

Now, guess what does this phobia mean? Ahh.. without using google.

Hippopotomonstrosesquipedaliophobia
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It's fear of LOOOOONNNGG WORDS!

How about this?
Phagophobia
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It's fear of swallowing. Abnormal fear of eating.
Thankfully, in most cases, there is a remedy especially for those who has irrational fears that robs them from functioning normally.
Treatment
Systematic desensitization and exposure (for specific phobias) and cognitive behavioral therapy (for social phobias).
Beta-blockers may be effective in treating performance-anxiety symptoms.
Drugs used in generalized social phobias include SSRIs (doses higher than those used in depression) or an MAOI (such as phenelzine). See also Panic Disorder for detailed description of medication issues.

For the second half of our meeting, we had a brief explanation on what 'Laugh Therapy' is about and its benefits.
Laughter therapy, which is also known as humor therapy is a therapeutic process which claims beneficial effects from using positive emotions associated with laughter. After all, laughter is the best medicine.

According to laughtertherapy.webs.com, laughing can help in:
a) lowering blood pressure
b) reducing stress hormones
c) increasing muscle flexion
d) boosting immune function by raising levels of infecting-fighting T-cells, disease fighting proteins called Gammainterferon and B-cells, which produce disease destroying antibodies.
e) triggering the release of endorphins, the body's natural painkillers that produces a general sense of well-being.
Other benefits include internal workout. Good news for us who wants to shade some calories. Laughter also gives us a positive perspective when we are caught in a gloomy situation. It allows us to think of the bright side of things, sometimes. Laughter also bonds us together with our family and friends. No wonder it's always good to laugh together. Happy people attracts people together! =)
Here are some videos. Hope it will tickle your funny bone.

Have a great weekend ahead. We look forward to see you in the next semester!
Reference:

Psychology Net: http://www.psychologynet.org/dsm/specphob.html

NO Meeting on 16th June 2010 (Wed)

2010-06-13T21:57:00.002+08:00

Hi everyone,

Due to an unforeseen circumstances. we, the committee members have decided that there will be no CPIC General Meeting this week. However, the meeting will be resumed on the 30th June 2010, 12-2 p.m. The venue has yet to be confirmed after a reservation has been made. Please come and join us as we explore a new topic on "Phobia".

See you there.

Antisocial And Psychopath

2010-06-04T11:18:00.001+08:00

Is Hitler a psychopath?

What is ASPD & Psychopath?

Antisocial Disorder

A pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others occurring since age 15, as indicated by at least 3 of the following:

Failure to conform to social norms and repeated lawbreaking; deceitfulness; impulsivity of failure to plan ahead; irritability and aggressiveness; reckless disregard for safety of self or others, consistent irresponsibility; lack of remorse

The individual is at least 18 years of age

There is evidence of Conduct Disorder with onset before age 15

Psychopathy

Affective and interpersonal core of disorder and reflect traits such as lack of remorse or guilt, lack of empathy, superficial charm, grandiose of self worth and pathological lying

Behaviour that involves antisocial, impulsive and socially deviant lifestyle such as need for stimulatin, poor behaviour controls, irresponsibility, and a parasitic lifestyle

The difference is…

Characteristics of Psychopath

Charming
Intelligent
Polite
Manipulative
Narcissist

Prevalence

Rare - 1.23 % - 3.46 %
ASPD – Higher – 3 % male, 1% female

Causal factors

Genetic
Social contribution
SES, constraints on choice, and motivation
Attachment
Family variables and parenting

Come Join Us!

2010-06-03T23:44:00.003+08:00

Hi everyone, thank you for dropping by at our booth on Club and Society Day. We appreciate your support. Good news is we've got over 20 students to sign-up on that day. Our first general meeting kicked off last Wednesday, 2nd June. The topic of the day was Antisocial, disorder. Kah Yan, our coordinator had came up with a creative way of communicating the disorders to our new and existing members. She introduced to us an episode of Criminal Minds about a psychopath person, who has multiple sex partners and is a con man. And like most psychopath, he is charming, violent, narcissistic and feel no guilt after murdering his lovers.

If you've missed this meeting, don't worry. We want you to look forward for the upcoming activity. On the 16th June 2010, come and join us for our second general meeting. We'll be discussing about phobia. Everyone has a phobia to a certain extend. It will be fun knowing each others' phobia and how we cope with it. :) Get to know new friends and enjoy yourself.

Drop us an e-mail at helpcpic@gmail.com if you're interested to know more about us or confirm the venue for the next meeting. If you've signed up on the Club and Society Day, you will receive an e-mail notification from us soon.

See you there!

Date	Activities

2^nd June 2010	Antisocial	Finish
16^th June 2010	Phobia & Coping Skills
30^th June 2010	Gender Identity Disorder and Sex Education

Get To Know Us

2010-05-19T19:43:00.005+08:00

Do you have interest in Clinical Psychology?

Do you want to know what Clinical Psychology is all about?

Do you want to know what CPIC has in store for you for this semester?

Do you want to be a member of CPIC?

Do you want to know more about Psychological Disorders such as depression, psychopath and schizophrenia?

If you say yes to all of these questions, come and visit our booth (B5) on Club and Society Day at DSA, Level 5, Wisma HELP on 26th May 2010 from 12-2 p.m.. It is our pleasure to warmly welcome new members to join us. To our existing CPIC members, spread this good news around. Feel free to lend a hand to us on the day itself too. Looking forward to see all of you!

Our Blog with A Facelift.

2010-04-19T13:07:00.009+08:00

Hi! Welcome to our blog. Our blog has been given a new facelift.
This blog serves the purpose of posting announcements on our fortnightly meetings and all the exciting events for the next coming semester from May-July 2010.

Don't miss out our featured posts (just below our blog heading). This gadget highlights a few good, interesting articles such as "How to make a friendship grow" written by our seniors. There will be more new articles on the way!

Also, check out our new links. Now, online articles are just at your fingertips with "Link me to" gadget! Learn more about what Abnormal Psychology is all about. Good news is that we will have more links to other websites soon! We're still in the quest of finding good, reliable sources for your reading.

We hope you'd like the new layout. Have a good study break. All the best for your finals and Happy Holidays in advance. If you would like to give us your feedback on this blog or suggestions to improve it, feel free to contact us at helpcpic@gmail.com.

Bipolar Disorder

2009-11-06T23:21:00.005+08:00

Symptoms of bipolar disorder
People with bipolar disorder experience both depression and periods of mania (Benneth, 2006).
What is Depression and Mania?
Depression
According to World Health Organization (WHO), depression is a common mental disorder that presents with depressed mood. DSM-IV-TR defines a major depressive episode presence for at least two weeks (Benneth, 2006).
The following are the symptoms in depression:
• Loss of interest or pleasure
• Feelings of guilt or low self worth
• Disturbed sleep or appetite
• Low energy
• Poor concentration.

Mania
According to DSM-IV-TR, mania involves at least three of the following:
• Inflated self-esteem
• Decreased need for sleep
• More talkativeness than usual or pressure to keep talking
• Flight of ideas or the experience that thoughts are racing
• Distractibility
• Increase activity or psychomotor agitation
• Excessive engagement in high-risk activities

There are two types of bipolar disorder as described in DSM-IV-TR
Bipolar disorder I
• Occurrence of depression and mania are experience by individuals alternately (Benneth, 2006).
• Whereby, some people may experience multiple episode of depression or mania with a period of “normality” between the gaps (Benneth, 2006).
• Besides, there are some people may experience both episode depression and mania in a day (Benneth, 2006).
Bipolar Disorder II
• Occurrence of depression is dominated (Benneth, 2006).
• Episode of mania is NOT experienced by the individual (Benneth, 2006).
• Individual with this disorder may swing between episodes of hypomania and severe depression (Benneth, 2006).

Hypomania: A raise in daily activities which beyond the normal but not as extreme as mania.

Causes for bipolar disorder

Genetic Factor
When talking about biological causes, the first issue is whether bipolar disorder can be inherited. This question has been researched through multiple family, adoption and twin studies. In families of persons with bipolar disorder, first-degree relatives (parents, children, siblings) are more likely to have a mood disorder than the relatives of those who do not have bipolar disorder. Studies of twins indicate that if one twin has a mood disorder, an identical twin is about three times more likely than a fraternal twin to have a mood disorder as well. In bipolar disorder specifically, the concordance rate (when both twins have the disorder) is 80 percent for identical twins, as compared to only 16 percent for fraternal twins. (Identical twins occur when one fertilized egg splits in two, so they share the same genetic material; fraternal twins come from separate fertilized eggs, so the mixtures of genetic material are different.) There is overwhelming evidence that bipolar disorder can be inherited and that there is a genetic vulnerability to developing the illness.

Neurotransmitters
However, exactly what is inherited? The neurotransmitter system has received a great deal of attention as a possible cause of bipolar disorder. Researchers have known for decades that a link exists between neurotransmitters and mood disorders, because drugs which alter these transmitters also relieve mood disorders. Some studies suggest that a low or high level of a specific neurotransmitter such asserotonin, norepinephrine or dopamine is the cause. Other studies indicate that an imbalance of these substances is the problem, i.e., that a specific level of a neurotransmitter is not as important as its amount in relation to the other neurotransmitters. Still other studies have found evidence that a change in the sensitivity of the receptors on nerve cells may be the issue. In short, researchers are quite certain that the neurotransmitter system is at least part of the cause of bipolar disorder, but further research is still needed to define its exact role.

Stress Triggers
These can range from a death in the family to the loss of a job, from the birth of a child to a move. It can be pretty much anything, but it cannot be precisely defined, since one person's stress may be another person's piece of cake. With that in mind, research has found that stressful life events can lead to the onset of symptoms in bipolar disorder. However, once the disorder is triggered and progresses, "it seems to develop a life of its own." Once the cycle begins, psychological and/or biological processes take over and keep the illness active.
Putting it all together
When we look for the cause of bipolar disorder, the best explanation according to the research available at this time is what is termed the "Diathesis-Stress Model." The worddiathesis means, in simplified terms, a physical condition that make a person more than usually susceptible to certain diseases. Thus the Diathesis-Stress Model says that each person inherits certain physical vulnerabilities to problems that may or may not appear depending on what stresses occur in his or her life(4). Durand and Barlow define this model as a theory "that both an inherited tendency and specific stressful conditions are required to produce a disorder."

So the bottom line, according to today's thinking, is that if you are manic depressive, you were born with the possibility of developing this disorder, and something in your life set it off.

Treatments for bipolar
Pharmacotherapy 3 types of medication:
Antidepressant
Antidepressant was first introduced in the 1950s (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). It is known then, as monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). Just as the name suggested, it inhibits enzyme monoamine oxidase from working and without this enzyme, norepinphrine and serotonin would not breakdown (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). However, there is a deadly risk in taking this drug. It reacts with food that contains amino acid tyramine (e.g. red wine, salami) (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). From 1960s to 1990s, tricyclic antidepressant was used (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). It increases the neurotransmission of norepinephrine and serotonin (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). However, there is only a 50 percent that this medication might work (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). Besides that, its side effects are very unpleasant to some of the patients (e.g. dry mouth, constipation, sexual dysfunction) (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). Because of the side effects of the two medications, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRIs) was introduced (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). It has lesser side effect compare to tricyclic antidepressant but, its effectiveness is the no better than tricyclic antidepressant (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). For bipolar disorders, the antidepressant only treats its depressive symptoms. Thus, it has to be paired with other treatments to treat its manic symptoms.
Lithium and mood stabilizers
Lithium is a widely use treatment for bipolar disorder as it deals with the manic and depressive symptoms (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). It helps to avoid recurrent episodes of manic and depression. However, not all of the patients have the same effect (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). Only one-third of patients react to the treatment (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). Plus, there are negative side effects as well, such as, weight gain, lethargy, cognitive slowing, decreased motor coordination and gastroinstestinal difficulties (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). Patients that do not react towards lithium will be given anticonvulsants, for example, carbamazepine, divalproex and valproate (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010).
Antipsychotics drugs
Patients that show symptoms of hallucinations and delusions will be given antipsychotic drugs as well to treat the psychosis symptoms (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010).

Biological Treatments
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
Only patients with severe bipolar disorder where drugs have no effects will be given this treatment option (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). Electrical current will be delivered to the patients’ brain in which it will cause brain seizures (Hoeksema, 2004). However, it causes a decrease in patients’ cognitive performance (Hoeksema, 2004). Furthermore, the patient may have a high percentage in relapse (Hoeksema, 2004).
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
Intense pulsating magnetic field is delivered briefly to the cortex to encourage electrical activity in the brain (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). There will be no pain and it takes only 2 to 6 weeks for a positive result (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). It is better than ECT as the treatment does not decrease cognitive performance and it may even increase its performance (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010).
Bright Light Therapy
This therapy is used for seasonal affective disorders; however, study has shown that this therapy is effective against depression (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). The therapy changes the brightness of the environment such as by letting in sunlight to the room or use artificial light (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). This will help to change the circadian rhythm of the patient (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). Once again, these biological treatments are only effective against the depressive symptoms (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). These treatments would be paired with other treatments that deal with bipolar (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010).
Psychotherapy
Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy
The main function of the therapy is to defy the autonomic thoughts that the patient has (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). For example, the therapist might ask the patient to challenge their idea of being worthless. For bipolar disorder, it has to be paired with medication to enhance its effectiveness (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). There is another type of CBT known as mindfulness based cognitive therapy (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). This therapy focuses on the acceptance or the awareness of the autonomic thoughts of the patient (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). This therapy is effective on patients with between episodes (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010).
Interpersonal Therapy
Interpersonal therapy focuses on the interpersonal relationship issues that the patients have (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). It helps the patient to be more understandable towards their communication styles and why they failed in adapting the situation (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). Bipolar patients would be treated by having a stabilize interactions with other people (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010).
Family and Marriage Therapy
In this therapy, family members are a very important aspect (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). Family members would be educated with patients’ disorders and what intervention should be used to help the patients (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010). This would help the patients’ family member to be more understanding and to prevent any negative views or perspectives of the family members towards the patient (Butcher, Mineka & Hooley, 2010).

References

Bennett. P. (2006). Abnormal and Clinical Psychology; An Introductory Textbook. Butcher, J.N., Mineka, S. & Hooley, J.M. (2010). Abnormal Psychology (14th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Hoeksema, S.N. (2004). Abnormal Psychology (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. England: McGraw-Hill education, Open University Press. Read. K., 2007, http://bipolar.about.com/cs/bpbasics/a/what_causes_bp.htm, retrieved at 29 October 2009. Bennett. P., 2006, Abnormal and Clinical Psychology, Open University Press, New York: United States. Ge

Obsessive-compulsive Disorder

2009-10-31T17:36:00.005+08:00

Definition

a mental disorder characterized by intrusive thoughts that produce anxiety, by repetitive behaviors aimed at reducing anxiety, or by combinations of such thoughts (obsessions) and behaviors (compulsions).

Symptoms

Obsession:

worrying
feeling unsafe
doubting
distasteful religious and sexual thoughts or images

Compulsion:

Cleaning
Checking
Touching and arranging
mental rituals
repeating
hoarding

Causes of OCD

1) Psychodynamic

Disturbance in the sexual life or development of the child
With unconscious wishes

2) Biological

Abnormalities within the brain, particularly in the orbital cortex

3) Environment

Influence by dysfunctional parent
Past traumas in one’s life (post-traumatic stress disorder)
Abuse situations

Treatment of OCD

1) Psychodynamic Therapy

uncovering hidden motivations and gaining insight

2) Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy

Exposure & Response Prevention
Gradually learning to tolerate the anxiety associated with not performing the ritual behavior.

3) Medication

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors( SSRIs)
Benzodiazepines
Serotonergic antidepressants
Atypical antipsychotics

4) Alternative Drug Treatment

5) Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

6) Deep brain stimulation

References

Andrew R.G,(2004). Abnormal Psychology Casebook- A New Perspective. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall
Anna Dejdar. (2006). Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: Is there a biological cause? Retrieved September 14, 2009 from the World Wide Web: http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro06/web1/adejdar Anxiety Care. (2009). Cause of OCD. Retrieved September 15, 2009 from the World Wide Web: http://www.anxietycare.org.uk/docs/ocdcauses.asp Anxiety Disorder Association of America. (2009). Getting .Help> Glossary. Retrieved September 12, 2009 from the World Wide Web: http://www.adaa.org/GettingHelp/glossary.asp Anxiety Disorder Association of America. (2009). Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Retrieved September 12, 2009 from the World Wide Web: http://www.adaa.org/GettingHelp/AnxietyDisorders/OCD.asp Brain Physics Mental Health Resource. (2009). Psychotherapy for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Retrieved September 18, 2009 from World Wide Web: http://www.brainphysics.com/therapy.php Brain Physics Mental Health Resource. (2009). Surgical Procedures for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Retrieved September 14, 2009 from World Wide Web: http://www.brainphysics.com/surgery.php Judith Graham. (2009). Deep brain stimulation approved for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Retrieved September 15, 2009 from World Wide Web: http://newsblogs.chicagotribune.com/triage/2009/02/deep-brain-stimulation-approved-for-obsessivecompulsive-disorder Northern County Psychiatric Associates,Psychiatric Services For Children, Adolescents, Adults and Families. (2009). Obsessive- Compulsive Disorder. Retrieved September 17, 2009 from World Wide Web: http://www.ncpamd.com/obsessive.htm Owen. K. (2009). Symptoms of OCD.What are the Symptoms of OCD. Retrieved September 18, 2009 from World Wide Web: http://ocd.about.com/od/symptomsanddiagnosis/a/symptoms_ocd.htm Owen. K. (2009). Treatment Of OCD: Safe and Effective Treatments are Available. Retrieved September 16, 2009 from World Wide Web: http://ocd.about.com/od/treatment/a/treatment_OCD.htmOwen. K.(2009). Where Does OCD Come From?Biological, Cognitive-Behavioral and Psychodynamic Theories may Hold the Answer. Retrieved September 16, 2009 from World Wide Web: http://ocd.about.com/od/causes/a/Causes_OCD.

Self-disclosure

2009-10-17T18:33:00.005+08:00

“A friend is a person with whom I may be sincere. Before him I may think aloud.” Ralph Waldo Emerson

Self-disclosure: is a special type of conversation in which we share intimate information and feelings with another person (Sears, Peplau & Taylor, 1991). It’s the process of deliberately revealing information about oneself that is significant and that would not normally be known by others (Adler & Rodman, 2006). It involves personal information that is verbally communicated to another person (Chelune, 1979; Cozby 1973, as cited in John & Valerian, 1987).

This personal information may be descriptive, evaluative or affective. People can disclose facts about themselves, opinions, or attitudes that they possess, or information about their moods and emotions (Omarzu, 2000).

Reasons for self-disclosure:
1. Expression: to express our feelings and to get things off our chest.
2. Self-clarification: gain greater understanding and self-awareness and to clarify our thoughts about the situation.
3. Social validation: by seeing how a listener reacts to our self-disclosure, we get information about the correctness and appropriateness of our views.
4. Social control: we may reveal or conceal information about ourselves as a means of social control.
5. Relationship development: sharing personal information and confidences is an important way to begin a relationship and to move toward increasing levels of intimacy.
6. Reciprocity: hoping similar disclosure by the other person.
7. Impression management: in order to build trust.

Social penetration theory stated that individual self disclose the most to people who are closet to them, which means individual self disclose more when relationship develop (Smith, 2002).

Four stages of relational development (Littlejohn, 2002, as cited in Smith, 2002):
1. Orientation of interation: Individuals disclose very little about themselves, people usually engage in small talk during this stage.
2. Exploratory affective exchange: Individuals started to reveal a little bit more about themselves and explore the other person, can share about their attitudes towards certain things. 3. Initial expansion of information and movement to a deeper level of disclosure: Individuals move to this stage if they can pass the second stage to build a relationship. This is the time where they started to review more about personal and private matter.
4. Stable exchange: Individuals are very familiar with each other, and they might be able to predict the emotions and feelings of each other.

“The Johari Window is a model to help people to improve their self-insight and their relationships with other team members through personal disclosure and constructive feedback.” (The six sigma group, 2008)

Below are the explanations of the four parts of the Johari Window:
Open Area: Information of which both you and the other person are aware.
Blind Area: Information of which you are unaware but the other person knows.
Hidden Area: Information that you know but aren’t willing to reveal to others.
Unknown Area: Information that is unknown to both you and others.

Disclosure behavior has been associated with physical health, success in close relationships, and overall psychological adjustment. (Omarzu, 2000)

However, there are also risks involved in self-disclosure (Baxter & Montgomery, 1996, as cited in Shirley, Powers & Sawyer, 2004):
1. Rejection by listener
2. Reduction of one’s autonomy and personal integrity
3. Loss of control or self-efficacy
4. Possibility of hurting or embarrassing the listener

Here are some questions you may want to ask when deciding on appropriate self-disclosure: (Adler & Rodman, 2006)
1. Is the other person important to you?
2. Is the risk of disclosing reasonable?
3. Are the amount and type of disclosure appropriate?
4. Is the disclosure relevant to the situation at hand?
5. Is the disclosure reciprocated?
6. Will the effect be constructive?
7. Is the self-disclosure clear and understandable?

When honest self-disclosure fails to take place, we are confronted with these alternatives:
1. Lies
2. Equivocation
3. Hinting

Friendship and intimate disclosure were more highly related among women than among men. (Rubin & Shenker, 1978)

References:
Adler, R.B. & Rodman, G. (2006). Self-Disclosure in Interpersonal Relationships. New York: Oxford University Press
Omarzu, J. (2000). A Disclosure Decision Model: Determining How and When Individuals Will Self-Disclose. Personality & Social Psychology Review (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates), 4(2), 174-185. Retrieved September 14, 2009, from Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection database.
Rubin, Z., & Shenker, S. (1978). Friendship, proximity, and self-disclosure. Journal of Personality, 46(1), 1-22. Retrieved September 14, 2009, from Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection database
Sears, D.O., Taylor, S.E. & Peplau, L.A. (1991) Social Psychology, 7th Ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall
Smith, R. (2002). Altman & Taylor’s Social Penetration Theory: Important People In Our Lives. Retrieved October 15, 2009 from the World Wide Web: http://zimmer.csufresno.edu/~johnca/spch100/10-5-altman.htm
The six sigma group (2008). The Johari Window. Retrieved October 15, 2009 from the World Wide Web: http://www.sixsigmagroup.co.uk/uploaded/documents/Johari%20Window.pdf
John, H.B. & Valerian, J.D. (1987). Self-disclosure: Theory, Research and Therapy. Retrieved October 17, 2009 from the World Wide Web: http://books.google.com.my/books?id=osTqcaiflJQC&pg=PA2&lpg=PA2&dq=Chelune,+1979,+Cozby+1973&source=bl&ots=HHQoA71LfZ&sig=PHWO0YIH7mr9V98Q5LHc0_mJy1I&hl=en&ei=f2zZSsLtB4aQkQWu9dXKDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Chelune%2C%201979%2C%20Cozby%201973&f=false
Shirley, J.A., Powers, W.G. & Sawyer, C.R. (2004). Human Communication: Psychologically Abusive Relationships and Self-Disclosure Orientations. A Publication of the Pacific and Asian Communication Association, 10(3), 289 – 302. Retrieved October 17, 2009 from the World Wide Web: http://www.uab.edu/Communicationstudies/humancommunication/PARSDO,2007,289-302.pdf

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

2009-09-11T17:46:00.010+08:00

11th of September 2001 (9/11) was a day of terror. The whole world was shocked on this very day when two hijacked airplane crashed into the World Trade Center (WTC), and wreaked havoc. As the WTC was collapsing, blocks and chunks of concrete fell like missiles showering down from the sky. Panic stricken people were seen jumping off the building to escape and landing dead on the ground. The crowds on the street scattered and ran for their lives in torrents. Within an hour or two, WTC was brought to the ground, and lower Manhattan was covered in debris. The scene was horrifying.

Thousands of people died that day. As for the survivors, cleanup and rescue workers who were exposed to the hazardous dust cloud at the scene, most of them suffered permanent health complications. However, what lays subtle is their mental well being after the traumatic experience. Probable psychiatric disorders that could arise are post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), major depressive disorder and panic disorder (Stellman et al, 2008). In addition, one of the most enduring health consequences of 9/11 attacks is proven to be PTSD (Bio-medicine, 2009). In fact, the symptoms of PTSD can last as long as five or six years after the incident (Bio-medicine, 2009).

In general, PTSD is “an anxiety disorder that some people get after seeing or living through dangerous event” (National Institute of Mental Health, 2009).

Symptoms
Three categories of symptoms categorize PTSD

Reexperiencing the traumatic event

distressing memories of the event
distress dreams about the event
reliving of the event by acting or feeling as if the event were recurring
intense psychological and physiological distress when exposed to situations reminiscent of the event

Emotional numbing and detachment

avoidance of thoughts, feelings, or conversations about the event
avoidance of activities, places or people associated with the event
trouble recalling important aspects of the event
loss of interest in activities
feelings of detachment from others
inability to have loving feelings toward others and a general restriction of feelings
sense that the future is bleak

Hypervigilance and chronic arousal

difficulty falling or staying asleep
irritability or outbursts of anger
difficulty concentrating
hypervigilance (means: abnormal increase in arousal, responsiveness or awareness)
exaggerated startle response

Common Causes
ObjectiveObjective

According to DSM-IV-TR, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) occurs when someone had experienced, witnessed, or had been confronted with traumatic events (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). There are four types of events that commonly cause PTSD: natural disasters, abuse, combat, and war-related traumas (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004).

Survivors of natural disasters such as earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes and tsunamis are highly susceptible to PTSD (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). All of a sudden, there are too many losses to cope with when a natural disaster strikes, such as shelter and family, threatening their safety and security (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). Victims of abuse may have prolonged PTSD as well (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). They might be victims of physical abuse which occurs frequently in battering relationship, sexual abuse of rape and incest, and emotional abuse which may happen when someone is continuously ridiculed (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). People who have fought in war or those who were taken as prisoners of war are prone to PTSD (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). “Combat fatigue syndrome”, “war zone stress”, and “shell shock” are well-documented cases faced by the soldier and prisoners of the two world wars as well as the Korean War (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). When something threatens our personal safety and security, it is likely that it will cause PTSD as well (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). When people are taken as hostage, being tortured or forced to be relocated, they will feel the constant fear in them, causing them to have prolonged distress (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004).

PTSD Vulnerability
Objective

Why are some people more prone to suffering from PTSD than others? The answers to their vulnerability to PTSD lie within their social factors, psychological factors and biological factors (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). Victims of a particular traumatic event may suffer from different severity of PTSD (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). To what extent did the traumatic event impact the life of the victim (severity), how long did the victim undergo the unsettling situation (duration), and how close was the victim with the causes or losses in the distressing incident (proximity) (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004)? Who is more likely to suffer more? A victim who lost his family and home? Or one that is mildly shocked? Apart from that, victims are more capable in healing process when there are continuous support from others, a channel to talk out their problems and a place to pour out their emotions (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). Various mental health programs were developed by World Health Organization (WHO), Japan International Coorperation Agency (JICA) focusing on social support (WHO, 2005; JICA, 2005).

Psychological factors play an important role in determining a person’s susceptibility to PTSD(Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). According to Nolen-Hoeksema (2004), people who believe in shattered assumptions are more prone towards suffering from PTSD. These unrealistic believes are hindering them from thinking and reasoning logically, hence fall prey into faulty pattern of thoughts (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). The three assumptions brought up by Nolen-Hoeksema (2004) were "personal invulnerability", "just world believe" and "bad things won't happen to good people". People who think that they are invulnerable believe that serious incidents like natural disasters or accidents would not happen on them, thus have a lower expectency and psychological preparation traumatizing events(Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). Therefore, when they were really involved in such situations, they would be shocked and would not know how to react (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). Another group of people believe that "the world is meaningful and just", so, "things happen for a good reason" (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). Hence when dreadful things happen to them, they will engage into self-blame - another faulty pattern of thoughts (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). Traumatic event brings about a lot of distress to the victims. Hence, for people with pre-existing distress, a sudden misfortune may increase the misery, causing the victim to be more vulnerable to PTSD (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). Personal coping style is also a determinant for individual vulnerability in PTSD (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). There were three types of coping styles that were discussed by Nolen-Hoeksema (2004), ruminative, dissociation and making sense coping style (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). To ruminate is to question or think over and over again. Unlike making sense, ruminating over a fear or unsettling event without reasoning will only augment the negative effect of the incident (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). While some people keeps thinking over the event, others avoid thinking about it by all means, including avoiding things that reminds them of the traumatic event (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). As a result, there will be rebound effect, where troubling memories will haunt them (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004).

Biological factors plays an important role in determining an individual's vulnerability to PTSD as well (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). Twin studies have shown that genetics maybe a cause for individual differences in their susceptibility to PTSD.

Treatments for PTSD
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
The goals for CBT is to challenge distorted thoughts and extinguish them. There are two techniques used in CBT, systematic desensitization and imaginal flooding. Systematic desensitizaton starts with less painful thoughts of the trauma, then slowly work up to more painful memories (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). Whereas in imaginal flooding technique, the anxiety-provoking scenes need to be identified at the beginning, then the survivor will be asked to recall specific details from the scene, allowing them to relive the trauma slowly and carefully to have better understanding of what the event mean to them (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004).

Stress Management
In the thought-stopping technique, individuals were taught to extinguish negative thought patterns by snapping a rubber band around their wrist (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). After which the intrusive thoughts have been ceased, individuals can replace negative emotions with a positive memory of some other event to elicit pleasurable feeling (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). Various relaxation technique is also thought when dealing with people who suffers from PTSD, such as breathing and muscle tensing.

Biological Treatments
Various medication can be prescribed to reduce the symptoms of PTSD, so that they can live through daily lives easier, such as anti-depressants, anti-anxiety and anticonvulsants (Halgin & Whitbourne, 2008).

Sociocultural Perspective
When dealing with people who suffer from PTSD, it is important to take note of cross-cultural issues, because they may have different standard of values and beliefs (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004). Besides, community level interventions can serve as a platform to the survivors where they can provide social support to one another.

References
Bio-medicine. (2009). For many, 9/11-linked trauma emerged years later. Retrieved August 13, 2009 from the World Wide Web: http://www.bio-medicine.org/medicine-news-1/For-Many--9-11-Linked-Trauma-Emerged-Years-Later-53661-1/.
JICA, 2005. News from the Field: Emergency Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Support Following the Major Earthquake Off the Coast of Sumatra and Tsunami in the Indian Ocean. Retrieved August 28, 2009 from the World Wide Web: http://www.jica.go.jp/english/news/field/archive/2005/sumatra/indonesia_3.html
Halgin, R. P. & Whitbourne, S. K. (2008). Abnormal Psychology: Clinical Perspectives on Psychological Disorders. 5th Ed. New York: McGraw Hill.
National Institute of Mental Health. (2009). What is post-traumatic stress disorder, or PTSD. Retrieved July 10, 2009 from the World Wide Web: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd/what-is-post-traumatic-stress-disorder-or-ptsd.shtml
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2004). Abnormal Psychology. New York: McGraw Hill.
Stellman, M. J., Smith, R. P., Katz, C. L., Sharma, V., Charney, D. S., Herbert, R., Moline, J., Luft, B. J., Markowitz, S., Udasin, I., Harrison, D., Baron, S., Landrigan, P. J., Levin, S. M. & Southwick, S. (2008). Enduring mental health morbidity and social function impairment in World Trade Center rescue, recovery, and cleanup worker: the psychological dimension of an environmental health disaster. Environmental Health Perspectives, 116, 1248-1253. Retrieved July 29, 2009 from EBSCO database.
WHO, 2005. WHO Recommendations for Mental Health in Aceh. Retrieved August 28, 2009 from the World Wide Web: http://www.who.or.id/eng/contents/aceh/WHO_Recommendations_Mental_Health_Aceh.pdf